『해상방위에서 해양왕국으로: 삼별초의 항쟁과 그 이후(From Maritime Defense to Oceanic Kingdom: The Resistance and Legacy of the Sambyeolcho)』

13세기 중반, 고려는 내우외환의 격동 속에 있었다. 내부적으로는 무신정권의 전횡과 왕권 약화, 외부적으로는 몽골 제국의 남진이라는 압도적 위협에 직면했다. 이와 같은 국난의 시기에, 원래는 무신정권 최씨 정권 하에서 치안과 군사적 특수 임무를 맡았던 야별초(夜別抄)는 점차 독립적 기동력을 갖춘 삼별초(三別抄)로 개편되며, 고려의 국방과 해상 치안의 주역으로 떠오르게 되었다. 삼별초는 처음에는 수도 개경과 무신정권의 핵심 방위기지였던 강화도의 수비를 맡았지만, 시간이 흐르면서 그 활동 범위는 점차 한반도 연안을 넘어 해양으로 확장되었다.

우별초의 해상 전개와 해양기지화

특히 최의 휘하의 우별초는 초기부터 해상 순찰과 연안 방어를 담당하며, 점차 해양 선단 및 기동 부대의 성격을 띠게 되었다. 몽골 제국의 본격적인 침입 이후, 삼별초는 단순한 육상 병력이 아닌, 바다를 이용해 전개하는 해양 항쟁군으로 전환되었고, 해상 방어 거점을 형성하며 고려 연안을 지키는 함대형 군사 조직으로 기능하였다. 이와 같은 전환은 고려 내에서도 특수한 위치에 있었던 삼별초가 자신들만의 정통성과 군사 전략을 모색하기 시작했음을 보여준다.
이 과정에서 삼별초는 무신정권의 정치적 중심지인 강화도를 전략적 거점으로 삼았다. 그러나 고려 조정이 몽골과의 강화 조약을 체결하고 다시 개경으로 환도하자, 삼별초는 이에 강하게 반발하며 강화도에 잔류하였다. 이들은 자신들이야말로 고려 왕실의 진정한 수호자라고 자처하였고, 몽골과의 강화는 국가적 굴욕이자 민심을 거스르는 행위로 규정하였다.

진도 용장성과 제주 항파두리성: 해양 항전의 두 전장

강화도에서의 저항이 한계에 이르자, 삼별초는 1270년 전라도 진도로 전략적 철수를 단행한다. 이는 단순한 후퇴가 아니라, 해양 항쟁 전선의 재편이자 새로운 독립 방위 전략의 시작이었다. 삼별초는 진도에 들어서며 용장성(龍藏城)을 중심으로 해상과 육지를 아우르는 복합 방어 체계를 구축하였고, 이를 기반으로 고려 조정과 몽골 연합군의 압박에 맞서 지속적인 해양 항쟁을 펼쳤다. 용장성은 자연지형을 최대한 활용한 천연 요새로, 단순한 군사 기지를 넘어 삼별초의 자주성과 해양국가적 정체성을 상징하는 핵심 거점이었다.
그러나 전세는 점차 불리해졌고, 삼별초는 진도 방어선을 유지하기 어려운 상황에 직면하였다. 이에 따라 이들은 최후의 항전 거점을 찾아 제주도로 대이동을 감행하였고, 항파두리성(항파두리진성)을 중심으로 마지막 방어진을 구축하게 된다. 이곳에서 벌어진 항전은 단순한 전투 이상의 의미를 지녔다. 고려 왕실의 국새와 주요 문서가 이 과정에서 사라졌다는 전승은, 이 항쟁이 단지 군사적 패배로 끝난 것이 아니라 고려 정통성과 주권 상징이 전장 한복판에서 흔들리던 위기의 순간이었음을 보여준다. 항파두리성은 삼별초의 최후 전장이자, 고려 항몽 투쟁의 마지막 불꽃이었다.

삼별초의 유산과 해양세력의 변신: 중산국과 통일유구제국

항파두리성 전투 이후, 삼별초는 역사 기록 속에서 사라졌지만, 그들의 전통과 후예는 완전히 단절되지 않았다. 민간 전승과 해양 교류사의 일부 기록은 삼별초의 잔여 병력 일부가 제주도를 넘어 남방 해역으로 이동하여, 오키나와를 포함한 유구 제도(琉球諸島) 일대로 이주했다고 전한다. 이들 해양 민은 이후 중산국(中山國)이라는 정치체제를 수립하였고, 시간이 흐르며 15세기 통일유구제국(統一琉球國)으로 발전하였다. 삼별초가 구축한 해양 전투와 연안 방어 경험, 자율적 정체성은 유구 해양왕국 건설에 있어서 정신적·기술적 기반이 되었을 가능성이 높다.
유구는 이후 조선, 명, 일본 무로마치 막부 사이에서 외교와 중계무역의 허브로 떠오르며, 단순한 조공국을 넘어선 독립 해양국가로서의 위상을 확보하였다. 이는 삼별초의 해양 네트워크와 그 잔재들이 동아시아 해양 질서 속으로 통합되었음을 보여주는 사례이다. 고려 말의 몰락에서부터 시작된 삼별초의 분투는, 결과적으로 한반도의 해양 정신이 동아시아 전체로 확장되는 과정으로도 읽힐 수 있다.

결론: 교류사의 흐름에서 본 삼별초의 재해석

삼별초의 항몽 투쟁은 단지 고려와 몽골 사이의 일시적인 반란이 아니라, 해양 민족의 자주성과 독립성을 실현하려 한 해상운동이었다. 이들은 패망한 반란군이 아니라, 새로운 해양 질서와 공동체의 설계를 시도한 자율 해양세력이었다고 평가할 수 있다. 그 유산은 유구국을 통해 계승되었고, 조선 초기까지 지속된 동아시아 해양 교류 질서 속에서 중계자이자 설계자로 기능하였다.
따라서 삼별초는 기존의 반도 중심 민족사관이나 왕조 중심의 정통사관을 넘어, 해양 중심의 교류사적 관점에서 재조명되어야 할 대상이다. 그들은 해상에서 새로운 가능성을 찾았고, 그 흔적은 지금도 유구의 정치·문화적 DNA 속에 면면히 남아 있다.

In the mid13th century, Goryeo was engulfed in a period of intense turmoil, facing both internal and external crises. Domestically, the Goryeo royal authority was weakened under the military dictatorship of the Choe clan, while externally, the kingdom confronted the overwhelming threat of the Mongol Empire’s southward expansion. In this national crisis, a special military organization originally established under the Choe regime, known as the Yabyeolcho(夜別抄), gradually evolved into the Sambyeolcho(三別抄)—a force with autonomous mobility and increasing naval capabilities. Initially tasked with defending the capital Gaegyeong and the strategic military base on Ganghwa Island, the Sambyeolcho soon expanded its operations beyond the Korean Peninsula into maritime domains.

The Naval Expansion of the Ubyeolcho and the Rise of Maritime Bases

Among the Sambyeolcho factions, the Ubyeolcho, under the command of Choe Ui, became increasingly active in patrolling the coasts and securing maritime transport routes. Over time, this unit transformed into a naval fleet with rapid deployment capabilities, capable of launching sea-based resistance operations. This marked a shift from a purely land-based militia to a naval resistance force equipped to defend Korea’s coasts. The transformation highlighted the Sambyeolcho’s emerging independent military strategy and a growing claim to legitimate authority during a time of national instability.

During this period, Ganghwa Island served as the strategic base for the Sambyeolcho. However, when the royal court of Goryeo concluded a peace treaty with the Mongols and relocated back to Gaegyeong, the Sambyeolcho refused to comply and remained on the island. They proclaimed themselves the true defenders of the royal lineage and denounced the peace treaty as a betrayal of national dignity and public sentiment.

Yongjang Fortress in Jindo and Hangpadu-ri Fortress in Jeju: Two Maritime Battlefields

When resistance on Ganghwa Island became untenable, the Sambyeolcho retreated strategically in 1270 to Jindo in Jeolla Province. This was not merely a retreat but a reorganization of their maritime resistance front and the beginning of a new phase of autonomous defense. In Jindo, they established a stronghold centered on Yongjang Fortress(龍藏城), which integrated both land and sea defenses. The fortress, built to take advantage of the natural terrain, served not just as a military base but as a symbol of the Sambyeolcho’s autonomy and maritime national identity.

As the tides of war turned increasingly unfavorable, the Sambyeolcho found it impossible to maintain the Jindo stronghold. They thus embarked on a bold move to relocate their final line of defense to Jeju Island, establishing their last bastion at Hangpaduri Fortress. The ensuing battle on Jeju carried not only military significance but also profound symbolic weight. According to historical accounts, the royal seal and critical state documents of the Goryeo court went missing during the conflict, highlighting the gravity of the situation—where even symbols of royal legitimacy were lost in the chaos. Hangpadu-ri thus became the Sambyeolcho’s final battlefield and the last flame of anti-Mongol resistance in Goryeo.

The Sambyeolcho’s Legacy and Transformation into Maritime Power: Chūzan and the Ryukyu Kingdom
Although the Sambyeolcho vanished from official historical records following their defeat at Hangpadu-ri, their legacy may not have been entirely extinguished. Oral traditions and records of maritime exchanges suggest that some survivors fled further south, beyond Jeju Island, to the Ryukyu Archipelago, including Okinawa. These exiles are said to have established a new political entity known as Chūzan(中山國), which later developed into the Unified Ryukyu Kingdom(統一琉球國) in the 15th century. The Sambyeolcho’s experience in naval warfare, coastal defense, and autonomous governance likely contributed to the foundation of this new maritime kingdom.

The Ryukyu Kingdom eventually emerged as a key diplomatic and commercial hub between Joseon Korea, Ming China, and Japan’s Muromachi Shogunate. Far from being a mere tributary state, it asserted itself as an independent maritime power, reflecting the broader legacy of the Sambyeolcho’s sea-based resistance. Their maritime network, once rooted in anti-Mongol resistance, evolved into a regional order integrated into East Asia’s oceanic diplomacy and trade. Thus, the Sambyeolcho’s struggle, originating in the twilight years of Goryeo, may be seen as a pivotal moment in the extension of Korean maritime spirit across East Asia.

Conclusion: Reinterpreting the Sambyeolcho through the Lens of Exchange History

The anti-Mongol struggle of the Sambyeolcho was not merely a fleeting rebellion but rather a maritime movement aimed at asserting autonomy and self-determination. They were not defeated rebels but visionaries of a new oceanic order and community. Their legacy, carried forward through the Ryukyu Kingdom, persisted well into the early Joseon era as part of East Asia’s dynamic network of maritime exchange.

Thus, the Sambyeolcho should be re-evaluated not through the traditional peninsula-centered nationalist lens or dynastic orthodoxy, but rather through the broader perspective of maritime and transnational history. They sought new possibilities at sea, and the traces of their legacy remain embedded in the political and cultural DNA of the Ryukyu Islands to this day.

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